William Shakespeare
(Henry IV Part II)

Sherry Wine in Ancient Times

The most ancient mention of Sherry comes from Strabo, a 1st-Century BC Greek geographer. In his book Geographia (book III) he wrote that the first vines were brought to the Jerez region by the Phoenicians circa 1100 BC.

This trading nation used to produce wines in Xera, the Phoenician name for the region where the modern town of Jerez is now located, which were then exported to the whole of the Mediterranean Basin, especially Rome.

The Greeks and Carthaginians also made important contributions to the region's history. Jerez has therefore roots which draw deeply on Mediterranean culture, the culture of wine and moderation.

Around 138 BC Scipio Emilianus pacified Baetica (an area roughly corresponding to modern Andalusia), establishing Roman rule and opening up a large flow of trade between the Ceret (Jerez) region and Rome. Even by then the fame of Vinum Ceretensis had crossed our frontiers and the wine was not only appreciated in Rome, but also in many other parts of the Empire, something proven by numerous archaeological remains in the shape of amphorae bearing a stamp in their clay according to their content, for tax purposes.

The Moorish Period

In 711 AD the Moorish occupation of Spain began, opening a period of history which in the case of Jerez was to last more than five centuries. During all of this time Sherish -as the Moors called Jerez- remained a large wine-producing centre in spite of the Koran's prohibition. The production of raisins and the distilling of alcohol for medical purposes were to a certain extent, pretexts for maintaining vine cultivation and wine production.

A very interesting map of the region dating from 1150 is kept in Oxford University's Bodleian Library. Drawn up by the Arab geographer Al-Idrisi for King Roger II of Sicily, the map clearly shows the Arab name, -Seris or Sherish- for the town of Jerez. In 1967 this map was a key piece of evidence in the case known as the "Sherry case" heard in London's High Court. This case was brought against the product denominated British Sherry and the map was used to prove the improper use of the geographical term Sherry when applied to wines produced outside what is now known as the region of Jerez.

The Christians and Sherry Wine

The conquest of Jerez by Alfonse X "the Wise", in 1264 brought a 180º turn around for our wines. The King himself had vineyards in Jerez and he took a personal interest in their care.

For many years after its Reconquest from the Moors, the town of Xeres (Jerez), along with other nearby villages, marked the limits of the Kingdom of Castile and thus received the name "Jerez de la Frontera" (Jerez on the Frontier).

During that period and even in the 12th Century, wines from Jerez were exported to and much appreciated in England where they were known by an anglicised version of the city's Arab name "Sherish". However, the wines became widely popular in England when Henry I, in order to develop the produce of both countries, proposed a bartering agreement to the people of Jerez: English wool for Sherry Wine.

From that moment, the Jerez vineyards became an important source of wealth for the kingdom, to such an extent that King Henry III of Castile prohibited by Royal Order the grubbing up of even a single vine and also forbade the placing of beehives near the vineyards to prevent the grapes being damaged by bees.

The growth in demand for Sherry Wines by English, French and Flemish merchants forced the proclamation of the Rules of the Guild of Raisin and Grape Harvesters of Jerez on August 12th 1483. These were Sherry Wine's first rules of Denomination of Origin and regulated the details concerning harvesting, the characteristics of the butts (known as botas), the ageing system and commercial procedures.

Sherry Wine in the Modern Era

Overseas sales of Sherry Wine flourished again following the marriage of Catherine of Aragon, the Catholic Kings' oldest child, to Prince Arthur of England and following his death to his brother Henry VIII. A very learned woman, Catherine only complained that "the King, my husband, keeps all of the best Canary and Sherry Wines for himself."

Exports of Sherry Wine continued to increase, and not only to Europe. Following the discovery of America, Genoese merchants settled in the Jerez region in order to trade with the Indies.

Before setting out on his epic voyage, Magellan bought 417 wineskins and 253 kegs of Sherry from these Genoese Merchants. Sherry Wine therefore holds the honour of being the first wine to have circumnavigated the globe, although it does not seem probable that there was much wine left in the final stage of the journey.

Wine enjoyed the privilege of having a third of the cargo space reserved for it in the ships that traded with the Americas, something that the Jerez region winegrowers took full advantage of, especially from 1680 onwards when Cádiz became home port to the Americas fleet and Seville lost its monopoly of trade with the Indies.

Sales of wine in the Indies was hampered by pirates who seized the fleet's cargoes and sold them in London. The greatest haul of wines was made by Sir Martin Frobisher of Sir Francis Drake's fleet who attacked Cádiz in 1587, sacked Jerez and seized 3,000 kegs of our wines.

The arrival of this wine in London made Sherry fashionable in the English Court. Some notion of the popularity of Sherry at that time can be gained from the works of William Shakespeare, who in the company of his friend Ben Johnson at the Bear's Head Tavern used to drink a good few bottles every day. The Bard refers to it frequently in many of his plays; Richard II, Henry VI, A Midsummer Night's Dream, The Merry Wives of Windsor, Henry IV, etc.

Demand for Sherry rose steeply and the English decided to obtain our wines by non-pacific means. In 1625 Lord Wimbledon attempted a new attack on Cádiz but was unsuccessful. It was probably this failure that led the English (and Scots and Irish) to ensure their supplies of wine through the usual commercial ways, establishing their own businesses in the region.

Sherry Wine as we know it today

After a long, turbulent history, the late 18th-Century wines from the Jerez region were still a far cry from the wines that we now recognise as Sherry and Manzanilla. At that time the struggle between the winegrowers (productores) and merchants (extractores) was clearly being won by the former. The rules of the Vintners' Guild, dominated by the winegrowers, the majority of whom resided in Jerez, expressly prohibited the storing of wines of different vintages, making it impossible to age them. As a result, the wines exported were always young wines from that year's harvest, highly fortified in order to preserve them during their usually long voyage.

1775 was the year when the so-called "extractors' action" began. It lasted for decades until the Guild's restrictive trading rules were rescinded. This gave a strong momentum to the production and commercialisation of wine and, even more importantly, it helped to shape the definitive identity of Sherry Wines.

The possibility of storing wines from different harvests and the need to supply the market with a product of a consistent quality gave rise to one of the fundamental contributions of Jerez to the history of wine: the ageing method known as Criaderas and Solera. Moreover, as the wine reposed longer in the barrels, the addition of wine-distillate changed from being nothing more than a way of stabilising the wines into a true oenological technic; the winemakers of the time then discovered that this addition of wine distillate in varying quantities gives rise to a wide range of different styles of wines.

Therefore different historical circumstances have moulded the identity of these wines in the same manner that the wine itself, its production methods, its trade and its enjoyment have been a determining factor in the region's history and in its inhabitants' cultural identity.

The Region of Production

The demarcated region of production for the wines protected by the JEREZ-XÉRÈS-SHERRY Denomination of Origin and that of MANZANILLA-SANLÚCAR DE BARRAMEDA is located in the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula. The area known as the "Sherry Triangle" is formed by the cities of Jerez de la Frontera, El Puerto de Santa María and Sanlúcar de Barrameda.

The Climate

The prevailing climate of the region is that of a warm southern region which is strongly influenced by the proximity of the Atlantic Ocean whose damp westerly winds bring moisture from the sea to the vines. During the Summer this moisture falls on the vines in the form of an early morning dew which acts as a moderating influence, preventing the vines and grapes from reaching excessively high temperatures.

During the active period of its annual cycle, the vine is exposed to an average temperature of 17,5º Celsius. The region enjoys almost 300 days of bright, direct sunlight per annum while registering a complete absence of frost and hail.

The averages rainfall is 600 lt./m2, most of which falls between the months of October and May, contributing to the reserves of groundwater which the plant will draw upon in the dry Summer months. The month of September is usually dry, a positive factor in both the grape's ripening process and general health.

The Soil

The Sherry vineyards cover a total surface of 10.500 Hectares. It is an area of open, rolling land with a unique feature, the "albariza" (from the Latin alba, or white), a chalky white soil. This albariza is the best type of soil in which to grow grapes for the production of Sherry Wine and it is the soil which gives the highest quality grapes.

The albariza is a white organic loam formed by sediment from the inland sea that covered the region during the Oligocene period. It is rich in calcium carbonate, clay and silica and is highly retentive of moisture, locking in each Winter's rainfall in order to nourish the vines during the dry months.

There are also other soil types, though in a lower percentage, used to produce Sherry Wine and which are known as "barros", or clays, and "arenas", or sands.

The region's winegrowers have traditionally divided the production area into "pagos". Each small area of vines with a homogenous mesoclimate and land, limited by topographical features earns the name of "pago". Some pagos well known for their quality are those of Carrascal, Macharnudo, Añina and Balbaina.

The Varieties of Grapes

The Rules of the Denomination of Origin Regulatory Council establishes the following grape varieties as being apt for the production of Sherry: Palomino, Pedro Ximénez and Muscat (Spanish: Moscatel).

The Palomino grape has many synonyms: Albán, Albar, Horgazuela, Jerez, Jerez fina, Listán, Listán común, Palomino, Palomino de Chipiona, Palomino de pinchito, etc. its cultivation in the region goes a long way back in time and should thus be regarded as a native species.

Thanks to its special viticultural and oenological properties, its use has increased steadily and it is the predominant variety in Sherry production. Perfectly adapted to the region, It is yet another of the region's unique features and when cultivated in albariza soil, it produces high-quality wines.

It is a white variety, with large, rounded, slightly stubby leaves with a V-shaped petiolar lobe, closed lateral lobes and downiness on the underside. The vine shoots are semi-creeping. The bunches are numerous, long and rather wide, with a great number of individual grapes. The grapes, which are pleasant to eat, are thin-skinned, medium-sized, slightly flattened, and juicy.

Pedro Ximénez. Some of its main synonyms are: Alamis, Pedro Jiménez, Pedro Ximen, Ximen, Ximénez, etc. It has long been grown in the Sherry region and is a traditional variety in other areas of Andalusia.

It gives sweet wines of high quality possessing a fruity flavour and a distinctive aroma which is achieved by leaving the harvested grapes in the sun so they lose some of their moisture. Its thin skin speeds this process.

A white grape, the leaves are medium-sized and rounded, with the petiolar lobe slightly opened and a V-shaped base, the upper lateral lobes closed, and a scant downiness on the underside. The shoots are erect, the bunches numerous with some waste, medium-sized, with an average compactness and a goodly number of individual grapes. The grapes are medium-sized, elliptical and have fine skins. They are juicy, sweet and flavoursome.

The Muscat (Spanish: Moscatel) grape is a variety used in the Sherry region to produce wines bearing the same name. The Muscat grapes cultivated here are called Chipiona Muscat. Other synonyms are Moscatel de Alejandría, Moscatel gordo, Moscatel de España, etc.

It is a variety native to Africa and cultivated in many wine-growing areas throughout the world. Muscat grapes were already referred to in ancient times by Columela, in the first years of the Christian era. In the Sherry region, it gives rise to high quality wines that carry the grape's name. The vines are best suited to vineyards located close to the sea.

A white grape, the leaves are medium-sized and rounded, with the petiolar lobe slightly opened and a V-shaped base, the upper lateral lobes closed, and scant downiness on the underside. The shoots are erect. The bunches are numerous, with some waste, medium-sized, with average compactness and a goodly number of individual grapes. The grapes are medium-sized, elliptical and have fine skins. They are juicy, sweet and flavoursome.

Cultivation

The traditional system of planting in the Region used to be the so-called "Marco Real" ( 1,50 x 1,50 metres). Now, due to mechanisation, a rectangular system is in use, generally with dimensions of 1,15 x 2,30 mThe rows of plants, or "linos", run North-South, to make best use of the sunlight throughout the entire day.

Planting. Once the work of manuring and the August weeding (known as the "agostado") have been completed, young vines are planted at a depth of 60 cm so the roots can penetrate into the "albariza" loam's damp layers more easily.

Grafting. This is carried out in the month of August. The operation consists of making a careful knife cut into which a single bud, almost always of the Palomino variety, is inserted and the scion
is then bound with raffia.

Pruning takes place between December and January. In Jerez the classic pruning system called "stick and thumb" (vara y pulgar) is used, which consists of cutting the two branches which make up each vine to leave in alternate years a single "stick" with eight buds from which the bunches of grapes develop- and a "thumb" with just one bud. The bud on the "thumb" sprouts into the following year's "stick", while this year's stick will next year be cut back to just a "thumb".

The Harvest

In the month of September the green stalk connecting each bunch to the vine darkens and the grapes themselves "surrender", turning soft and sweet. There is not an exact date for the beginning of the harvest, as it depends on the degree of maturation of the grapes, which -according to the rules of the Denomination of Origin- must be at least 10.5º.

While Palomino grapes require a quick transportation into the wine-making plants in order to avoid the oxidation of the grape must, Pedro Ximénez and Muscat grapes -used for making sweet wines- are treated in a very different way. After cutting the bunches, they are set out in the open air on esparto grass mats; the aim of this practice is to raise their sugar content and lower their moisture by evaporation. This operation usually lasts several days, depending on the climatic conditions.

Obtaining the must

Once harvested, the Palomino grapes are speedily taken to the winepresses. In the Jerez region they are usually situated next to the vineyards themselves or on the outskirts of the towns to help a fast access. The grapes are unloaded onto conveyor belts where stems, leaves, and unsuitable bunches are discarded in order to avoid an undesired level of tannin. The suitable grapes are then gently traded in machines, in order to just brake the individual grapes and obtain the free-run juice. From there they go directly to the presses where, through light pressing, the first must or "mosto de yema" is obtained. This process yields 70 Iitres of must per 100 kg of grapes. Only this must from the first pressing will be used to produce Sherry Wines.

The wine cellars usually carry out two further pressings, the must from the second pressing being used for Sherry vinegar, while from the third pressing wines for distilling or for other uses will be produced.

Fermentation

The "mosto de yema" obtained from the pressing goes directly into vertical stainless steel tanks holding up to 40.000 Iitres to be fermented, a temperature-controlled process which takes place at between 22°C and 24ºC.

Some Houses still practice the old system of fermenting in new oak barrels or "botas", with the dual purpose of preparing the casks for later use in the long Sherry ageing process and at the same time achieving very specific characteristics in the wines obtained.

The fermentation process in the Jerez region is divided into two clearly differentiated stages: the first one is the so-called "stormy" or "tumultuous" fermentation process during which more than 90 per cent of the total sugar contained in the grape is converted into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. The first 36 hours are the most active period and the whole of this first stage lasts between 3 and 7 days, depending on the outside temperature. After this first phase, there is a second, slow stage, lasting until the beginning of December. By then, all of the remaining sugar has been transformed, resulting in a delicate, totally dry white wine with an alcohol content of between 11 and 12% vol.

The First Classification

The first classification of Sherry Wines takes place during the first cold days of Winter, before the new wines leave the fermenting vats. Days after the fermentation has ceased, all of the solid particles -the "lees"- have decanted to the bottom of the vats and the wine is now clean and transparent.

Wine tasters now take samples from each of the individual fermenting tanks in order to take the first decisions which will determine the type of ageing which that year's different wines will undergo. Some of the palest wines, clean to the nose and particularly light will be set aside for ageing "bajo flor", (under the veil of yeasts) in order to produce the FINO and MANZANILLA styles. Other wines, also clean on the nose and palate, but with more body, will be classified as OLOROSOS.

The wines, once fortified, are transferred to typical oak barrels called "botas" (butts) for the first stage of their ageing; a usually short stage of static ageing (less than one year) known as "sobretablas".

Different to other wine regions where the wines age in hermetically sealed vessels in order to prevent their oxidation, the ageing process for Sherry takes place in 600 lt. American oak butts which are only filled to 5/6 of their capacity. This leaves an empty space inside the butt ("two-fists high"), which is filled by air thanks to the unsealed hole located on the top of each barrel. In this way, the region's microclimate, in all its variations, can play its key role in the so-called aerobic ageing process of Sherry wines.

In the case of Fino and Manzanilla, the "velo de flor" or veil of yeasts that appeared at the end of fermentation remains covering all of the wine's free surface inside the butt. This veil, formed by live yeasts belonging to the genus Saccharomyces, isolates the wine from the air and prevents its oxidation. Moreover, the yeasts are interacting constantly with the wine, consuming some of its alcohol and other nutrients, and endowing it with its characteristic aromas and flavours. This type of ageing process is known as "biological ageing".

In the case of Oloroso wines that have been fortified to over 17% vol., this higher strength impedes the development of the "flor", making the veil disappear. The wine is therefore in permanent and direct contact with the oxygen in the air. This type of ageing is known as "oxidative" or "physical-chemical ageing".

Therefore, it is the disappearance of the "flor" that gives rise to a particular type of oxidation which in turn leads to the development of the characteristic colour, aroma and palate which typify dry or semi-sweet Oloroso Sherry Wine.

Sometimes, yet most of the times as a result of the winemaker's decision, some wines under "biological ageing" endowed with exceptional organoleptic qualities have their "flor" reduced, even to the point of disappearing; then their alcohol content is raised above the maximum limit for yeasts. As the protection of the veil of flowers disappears, these wines, in direct contact with the air, begin a new stage of oxidative ageing. This gives rise to the class of Sherry Wines known as AMONTILLADO, a jewel among the world's wines.

The Ageing of Sherry Wine

In the ageing cellars the wines repose organised according to their different degrees of ageing. The butts, or "botas" are lined up in rows on three or four different levels, each of which corresponds to a scale. The lowest row or scale is known as "solera" (from the Spanish word suelo, or ground) and contains the oldest wine. The butts in the row immediately above it, the "primera criadera" (first nursery) contain wine somewhat younger than the row beneath and in the row above that, the second nursery or second "criadera", the wines are younger still. And so on until we reach the last and highest row.

Wine for bottling is always drawn off from the ground-level butts (from the "solera") by an operation known as the "saca". Only a small amount of wine is taken from each butt during the saca. Later, this wine extracted from the butts on the ground-level row is replaced by the same quantity of wine from the first nursery. This wine in turn is replaced inside the butts with wine from the second nursery and so on up to the wines on the highest row of butts, which are finally blended with the new wines from the last harvest. This operation is known in Jerez as "running the scales" and is usually carried out with a special set of tools called the "canoe" (canoa) and the "sprinkler" (rociador), so that the wine drips into the next butt little by little and the "flor" protecting the wine is not damaged.

Although in exceptional cases Sherry houses age some of their wines statically by a system of "añadas" or vintages, the "criaderas and solera" method is indisputably the genuine ageing process for Sherry Wines. The blending of wines originating from many different vintages means that it is impossible to refer to a specific year's harvest; however, we can establish an average age for the solera or ground-level wine, based on a series of factors such as the number of scales or criaderas, the percentage of wine transferred every time the scales are run or the frequency of the operation itself.

The minimum ageing for a Sherry Wine is three years, although it is frequently much longer. Specific types of wine only acquire their most genuine characteristics after decades of ageing. For this reason, the Regulatory Council of the Sherry Denomination of Origin qualifies, at the winemakers' request, certain wines with an average age of over 20 or 30 years, following a painstaking sampling and analytical verification process.

The Wine Cellars

The "bodegas" in the Jerez Region are always beautiful and often very impressive buildings. But beyond their beauty, when we analyse them in terms of the requirements for the production of Sherry wines, we must also conclude that they are extremely functional buildings.

The climate of the region, southern and warm but with a strong cooling influence from the Atlantic Ocean, has challenged the wine growers of Jerez to adapting their cellars so that the negative factors are compensated while making the most of the positive ones.

The one-storey cellars are usually located close to the sea or on relatively high sites exposed to the Ocean, so that the wines in the barrels can benefit from the morning sea breezes and westerly winds. Moreover, the Jerez winegrowers build their cellars along a northeast-southwest axis that provides for the minimum hours of direct sunlight and the maximum humidity.

The yeasts in the flor thrives on darkness and silence and for that reason the windows are set high up the walls and are rectangular to prevent the sunlight from falling on the butts. Moreover the windows are covered with lattices or blinds made of esparto grass which allow the sea breezes to enter while keeping out the light.

The bodegas in the Jerez Region are higher than those of other wine regions, their central arch reaching heights of up to 14.5 m. The winegrowers use this model of cellar in order to ensure a large volume of air for each butt since good ventilation is a prerequisite of the biological ageing process.

The buildings' side walls are always at least 60 cm thick in order to support the high outer walls and to provide good thermal insulation. The walls are made of highly hygroscopic materials so that the cellars maintain a high level of humidity. For the same reason the floors are of sand, lime and iron oxide (albero sand) which are sprinkled with water twice a week in Summer in order to keep the cellars cool.

Blending and final preparation

Once the ageing process has finished and when the "saca" (drawing off) of wine from the solera butts takes place, some of the Sherry styles are now ready to be commercialised. Others however will be subjected to a "cabeceo" or blending. Traditionally some of the dry Sherries, especially the Amontillado and Oloroso are blended with sweet wines in order to obtain different styles of Sherry with more body, such as Medium or Cream Sherries.

The cellarmen's wisdom in selecting the wines and in determining the correct proportions for each "cabeceo" is nothing short of an art which is often handed down from father to son.

Sherry Wine offers a wide range of colours, aromas, sensations and possibilities. Its unique method of production and ageing and (to no lesser degree) its long, rich history endows a common identity to many different types of wines, all enjoying the generic denomination of Sherry (an anglicised version of Sherish, the Arab name for the city of Jerez).

The type of ageing used in the production of Sherry, being it biological, oxidative or a combination of both, means that the wines gradually acquire many different hues, ranging from a very pale straw-yellow to a dark, intense mahogany.

On the other hand, the blending of natural sweet wines with originally dry wines such as Finos, Amontillados and Olorosos gives rise to medium-dry or sweet wines.

Fino A pale golden or straw-coloured wine with a sharp, delicate bouquet suggestive of almonds. It is light and dry on the palate. This wine is aged under a veil of yeasts called "flor" and has an alcohol content of between 15% and 18% vol.

Manzanilla A straw-coloured wine with a dry, sharp bouquet which is light on the palate. It is aged under the very special type of "flor" that exclusively grows in bodegas located in Sanlúcar de Barrameda. Its alcohol content varies from 15% to 19% vol.

Amontillado An amber-coloured wine with a sharp but subtle bouquet suggestive of hazelnuts. It is light and smooth on the palate. Its alcohol content varies between 16% and 22% vol.

Oloroso Initially dry, it is an amber to mahogany coloured wine and has a pronounced bouquet, as its name indicates. It has overtones of nut and a full, vinous body. Its alcohol content varies between 17% and 22% vol.

Palo Cortado A bright mahogany-coloured wine, with a bouquet suggestive of hazelnuts and a dry palate. It is balanced, elegant and very persistent. It combines the smooth, delicate and sharp qualities of Amontillado with the vinous, rounded qualities of Oloroso. Its alcohol content varies between 17 %and 22% vol.

Pale Cream A straw-coloured wine with a sharp, delicate bouquet. It has a delicate, slightly sweet flavour. Its alcohol content varies between 15.5% and 22% vol.

Medium An amber to mahogany coloured wine with a delicate bouquet and a slightly sweet palate. Its alcohol content varies between 15% and 22% vol.

Cream A sweet, mahogany-coloured wine, made from Oloroso. It has an intense aroma, velvety palate and full body. Its alcohol content varies between 15.5% and 22% vol.

Pedro Ximénez A dark, mahogany wine with a deep bouquet of raisins. It is smooth and sweet in the mouth. This full, vigorous and perfectly balanced wine is produced from sun-dried Pedro Ximénez grapes. Its alcohol content varies between 15% and 22% vol.

Moscatel A dark mahogany-coloured wine, produced exclusively from sun-dried grapes of the same name (English: Muscat). It is a smooth, sweet wine with an aroma characteristic of this variety of grape. Its alcohol content varies between 15% and 22% vol.

Although Sherry and Manzanilla are the apéritif drinks par excellence, the possibilities of Sherry Wines go much further. The suggestions below are just some suggestions, since the combinations of these wines with good food have no limits others than your own imagination:

Fino and Manzanilla, served well-chilled, are ideal apéritifs. Moreover, they are the perfect accompaniment for "tapas" (hors d'oeuvres), soups, seafoods, white fish and mild cheeses.

Amontillado is an ideal wine to accompany soups and consommés, white meats, blue fish and strong cheeses.

Medium Sherry, served slightly chilled, is the perfect wine to accompany patés and quiches.

Oloroso is the best Sherry Wine to serve with game and red meats.

Pale Cream, served chilled, is an excellent wine to accompany foie gras and fresh fruit.

Cream is the most appropriate Sherry Wine to accompany sweet pastries and, on the rocks, is an ideal accompaniment to all types of Spanish tapas (hors d'oeuvres).

Pedro Ximénez and Moscatel are ideal wines to serve with all types of pastries and blue cheeses.